Violence against Women in Afghanistan

Violence against Women in Afghanistan Afghanistans country has been ruled by militant groups of the Taliban and womens rights have been exploited for political gain. Women were allowed to do many things such as the right to vote before civil conflict and Taliban rule before the 1970s. The Taliban ruled in Afghanistan from 1996 until 2001(Dupont, 2004). Their aim was to make Afghanistan an Islamic state and under their rule woman and girls were faced with discrimination and were forced to follow their version of Islamic law. Women were violated, beaten, abused and raped. Although in 2001 they banish from power there are still some that control sections of Afghanistan. In 2009 Afghanistan adopted the elimination of violence against woman law but women are still being abused and have no equality. â€Å"Women constitute roughly 49% of Afghanistans 23.3 million people.†(Ministry of Women’s Affairs, 2008, para1). In comparison to the Afghanistan men, women are the worst off in the world and their situation is ver y poor especially in the areas of health data, human rights, protection against violence, education, public participation, and economic productivity. According to (MOVA, 2008), â€Å"the average Afghan woman have a lifespan of 44 years which is around 20 years short of the global average.† Woman in Afghanistan die at a younger age than men because of the abuse and harsh suffering that is placed on them. Women in Afghanistan face under age early marriages, forced marriages high fertility rate which contribute to high incidence of maternal mortality. Women are limited to access services and opportunities due to poverty insecurity and harmful traditional practices and abuse by their spouse (MOVA, 2008). Women face many health problems because they have to wait for approval from their spouse and because of their culture they have limits to male doctors. Not only do women have poor quality health but they also have a low literacy rate. Education is a huge concern because they lack the resources, facilities, finance, protection from abuse and girls and women are discouraged from going to school. â€Å"The adult literacy rate in Afghanistan is estimated at 36% while the woman, it is estimated at being 21%.†(MOVA, 2008, pg. 3) Boys are more likely to complete primary school and further their education than girls. Men are economically more stable than are women. Womens productive contributions are underestimated and underpaid and women have limited access to economic resources. What has already been done? In 2009 the law on elimination of violence against woman was enacted and this law covers crime of forced marriages, forced self immolation and other acts of violence against woman. Ever since the law was in place there have been incidences of 2,299 cases of violence against women (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for human rights [OHCHR], 2011) and a record of increases in number of cases of self immolation of girls and women in southern and southeastern regions of Afghanistan. Most cases are not investigated by police and some crimes were prosecuted through penal code instead of the elimination law which left perpetrators with lighter charges and women being accused of moral crimes (OHCHR, 2011). Because many women are unaware of the law and protective factors, women are still fleeing from violence and forced marriages. Many of the women run to women shelters that offer temporary safe refuge. The violence against woman presents them from having a voice and limits their ability to do anything in the public. United nations assistance in Afghanistan and the office of the United Nations High Commissioner for human rights have called on the government to make the law known among people in rural and urban areas and also government of all levels. The United Nations collected information from 22 of Afghanistans 34 provinces during a 12 month period to see how well the law is used (OHCHR, 2011). Because of cultural restraints, social norms and religious beliefs, woman face acts of violence. Many of the women are discouraged from seeking help due to fear of their lives. They faced so much discrimination and fear that they dont want to do anymore to further complicate their lives. Due to the sufferings and abuse on womens health, there have been mobile teams available in the community to help women get care for their health. The mobile team includes midwife, vaccinators, community health supervisors and community health workers (Madhok, 2014). Whenever a case is very severe they are referred to main hospitals. UNICEF has provided and funded special care for women and their children and this helps by improving womens access to medical care. In 2012 the IASC gender marker was introduced Afghanistan and resulted in significant achievements towards mainstreaming gender. Midyear evaluations were conducted to verify implements of the IASC gender marker (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs [OCHA], 2013, pg. 39). They made visits to different sites in Bamyan, Herat, Nangahar and Kabal. They faced many challenges on recruiting women to provide healthcare for women and girls because of their customary practices and fear they faced against men. Few Afghanistan non-governmental organizations (NGOs) develop strategies to slowly change gender attitudes and Kabal. Through their awareness and building trust with the men, women were allowed permission to receive family planning from male doctors. Many women are not allowed to work or be seen by men so that is why they were restricted from any services. To help address gender issues, gender frameworks were developed to engage communities to work on meeting humanitarian a nd protection needs of vulnerable groups (OCHA, 2013). Other things that were done: Governments have involved women in national institutions Woman are recognized in the constitutional Loya Jirga Government mandated the national Solidarity program to ensure womens participation as actors and beneficiaries in the program Implementation of Bonn Agreement(increases womens involvement in government) Established the Ministry of womens affairs (2001) Education awareness on rape and sex assault Provided helpline contacts Develop training packages for domestic homicide Improve commission of services Elimination of Violence against Woman Law (2009) Partnerships Used to implement awareness: UN action against sexual violence in conflict Inter agency task force for women, peace and security Inter Agency Task Force on Prevention of sexual exploitation NGO, civil society and communities to promote gender equality and empowerment of women and girls Gender Standby Capacity (GenCap) project Steering Committee Afghanistan Ministry of womens affairs (UNICEF, 2012) What needs to be done? Continuously enforcing the law (punishment for not following rules) Place perpetrators in prison Revise Afghanistans legislative framework Implement gender equality Allow more women to contribute in the country Raise awareness of the law all over so that men and women are informed Include organizations that support nonviolence against women and men Provide healthcare to women and children and make accessible in poor areas Increase protection mechanisms in schools to allow girls and women of safer environment for education Protection of womens rights Integrate gender equality programs and extend women roles /more opportunities Provide surgical help for women Provide nutritional supplies Educate men about integration of womens roles Educate children about abuse and consequences Provide rehabilitation and coping centers To measure the outcomes of the plan, the process needs to be evaluated to ensure that all ideas have been implemented. This includes: reviewing of the past abuse rates and comparing them with the new ones to determine whether the plan was beneficial; looking at the healthcare of women and children to determine if proper health care have been given to improve their health; looking at the education rates of women and the level of education accomplished; determining what has been made available to women and what roles they currently hold; looking at attitudes and behaviors of men towards women to determine if there were any significant changes in the household; ensuring prosecution of the perpetrators and an improvement in the judicial system. References Dupont, S.(2004) Women in Afghanistan: The back story. Retrieved from  www.amnesty.org.uk/womens-rights-afghanistan-history#.U1i-WOawL9d Ministry of Women’s Affairs (2008) National Action Plan for Women of Afghanistan. Retrieved  From mova.gov.af/en/page/6686 Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). (2013) Afghanistan Common  Humanitarian Action Plan. Retrieved from http://unocha.org/cap/ Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for human rights (OHCHR) (2011) A Long  way to Go: Implementation of the Elimination of Violence Law. Kabul, Afghanistan Retrieved from www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/AF/UNAMA_Nov2011.pdf UNICEF (2012) Gender Equality in Humanitarian Action Retrieved from www.unicef.org

Role of Human Resource Department

The human resource department plays a major role in helping plan the system and in developing job description, job specification and performance standards. Specialists in that department may be assigned to conduct job analysis and write job descriptions in cooperation with managers, supervisors and employees. The human resource department is not involved in the actual writing of performance standards but play a diagnostic, training and monitoring role. JOB DESIGN Job design is a process of determining the specific tasks and responsibilities to be carried out by each member of the organization.In simple words, the logical sequence to job analysis is job design. Job analysis provides job-related data as well as the skills and knowledge expected of the incumbent to discharge the job. Job analysis, then, involves conscious efforts to organize tasks, duties and responsibilities into a unit of work to achieve certain objectives. Fig: Factors Affecting Job Design Factors Affecting Job Desig n Job design is affected by organizational, environmental, behavioural factors. A properly designed job will make it productive and satisfying.If a job fails on this count, the fault lies with the job designers who, based on the feedback, must redesign the job. (See Fig) Techniques of Job Design Fig: Techniques of Job Design ?Work Simplification: In this technique, the job simplified or specialized. A given job is broken down into small sub-parts and each part is assigned to one individual. ?Job Rotation: Job rotation implies movement of employees from job to job. Jobs remain unchanged, but incumbents shift. With job rotation, a given employee performs different jobs, but more or less, jobs of the same nature. Job Enlargement: Job enlargement involves expanding the number of tasks or duties assigned to a given job. Job enlargement is naturally opposite to work simplification. Adding more tasks or duties to a job does not mean that new skills and abilities are needed to perform it. ? Job Enrichment: Job enrichment seeks to improve both task efficiency and human satisfaction by building into people’s jobs, quite specifically, greater scope for personal achievement and recognition, more challenging and responsible work, and more opportunity for individual advancement and growth. Autonomous or Self-directed Teams: A self-directed work team is an intact group of employees who are responsible for a whole work process or segment that delivers a products or service o an internal or external customer. ?High-Performance Work Design: It is a means of improving performance in an environment where positive and demanding goals are set. Role of Human Resource Department The human resources department’s role in job design is usually indirect, although job design influences almost every aspect of human resources management.The department diagnoses organizational problems that suggest job redesign, incorporate information on job design in training and management de velopment programs, and help plan job redesign programs to ensure that sound human resources policies and practices are developed. Further, the department is needed to prepare to modify job descriptions and job specifications and to modify recruitment, selection, training, compensation and other practices to be consistent with any job redesign program.

Enzyme Structure and Functions:

ENZYME STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS: Enzymes are biological catalysts. They increase the rate of reactions by a factor of between 106 to 1012 times, allowing the chemical reactions that make life possible to take place at normal temperatures Definition of enzyme: A protein with catalytic properties due to its power of specific activation is defined as an enzyme. STRUCTURE Enzymes are proteins their function depends on its complexity. The reaction takes place in a small part of the enzyme called the active site, while the rest of the protein acts as â€Å"scaffolding†.The shape and the chemical environment inside the active site permits a chemical reaction to proceed more easily Many enzymes need cofactors (or coenzymes) to work properly. Tightly bound cofactors are called prosthetic groups Cofactors that are bound and released easily are called coenzymes These can be metal ions (such as Fe2+, Mg2+, Cu2+) or organic molecules (such as haem, biotin, FAD, NAD or coenzyme A). Many of t hese are derived from dietary vitamins, which is why they are so important. The complete active enzyme with its cofactor is called a holoenzyme, while just the protein part without its cofactor is called the apoenzyme.HW DOES AN ENZYME WORK? 1) REACTION MECHANISM 2) MOLECULAR GEOMETRY REACTION MECHANISM: In any chemical reaction, a substrate (S) is converted into a product (P) In an enzyme-catalysed reaction, the substrate first binds to the active site of the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate (ES) complex, then the substrate is converted into product whilst attached to the enzyme, and finally the product is released, thus allowing the enzyme to start all over again An example is the action of the enzyme sucrase hydrolysing sucrose into glucose and fructose.MOLECULAR GEOMETRY The substrate molecule is complementary in shape to that of the active site. It was thought that the substrate exactly fitted into the active site of the enzyme molecule like a key fitting into a lock (the now discredited ‘lock and key’ theory). This explains enzyme specificity This explains the loss of activity when enzymes denature The Induced Fit Hypothesis  : * Some proteins can change their shape (conformation) When a substrate combines with an enzyme, it induces a change in the enzyme’s conformation * The active site is then moulded into a precise conformation * Making the chemical environment suitable for the reaction * The bonds of the substrate are stretched to make the reaction easier (lowers activation energy) ENERGY CHANGES  : Energy needed for initial reaction is known as ACTIVATION ENERGY. The larger the activation energy is, the slower the reaction will be.This is because only a few substrate molecules will have sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. Enzymes reduce the activation energy of a reaction so that the kinetic energy of most molecules exceeds the activation energy required and so they can react. Factors affecting Enzy mes substrate concentration pH temperature enzyme concentration inhibitors SUBSTARTE CONCENTRATION The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction is also affected by substrate concentration.As the substrate concentration increases, the rate increases because more substrate molecules can collide with active sites, so more enzyme-substrate complexes form. At higher concentrations the enzyme molecules become saturated with substrate, and there are few free active sites, so adding more substrate doesn't make much difference The maximum rate at infinite substrate concentration is called vmax, and the substrate concentration that gives a rate of half vmax is called KM.These quantities are useful for characterising an enzyme. A good enzyme has a high vmax and a low KM. pH Enzymes have an optimum pH at which they work fastest. For most enzymes this is about pH 7-8 (normal body pH), but a few enzymes can work at extreme pH. The pH affects the charge of the amino acids at the active site, so the pr operties of the active site change and the substrate can no longer bind. TEMPERATURE: Enzymes have an optimum temperature at which they work fastest.For mammalian enzymes this is about 40 °C. Up to the optimum temperature the rate increases geometrically with temperature. Above the optimum temperature the rate decreases as more of the enzyme molecules denature. The thermal energy breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the secondary and tertiary structure of the enzyme together, so the enzyme loses its shape Q10 (the temperature coefficient) = the increase in reaction rate with a 10 °C rise in temperature. ENZYME CONCENTRATIONAs the enzyme concentration increases the rate of the reaction also increases, because there are more enzyme molecules (and so more active sites), available to catalyse the reaction therefore more enzyme-substrate complexes form INHIBITORS Inhibitors inhibit the activity of enzymes, reducing the rate of their reactions. 2 TYPES: Competitive and non competitive CO MPETITIVE: A competitive inhibitor molecule has a similar structure to the substrate molecule, and so it can fit into the active site of the enzyme. It therefore competes with the substrate for the active site, so the reaction is slower.Increasing the concentration of substrate restores the reaction rate and the inhibition is usually temporary and reversible. NON COMPETITIVE: A non-competitive inhibitor molecule is quite different in structure from the substrate and does not fit into the active site. It binds to another part of the enzyme molecule, changing the shape of the whole enzyme, including the active site, so that it can no longer bind substrate molecules. Non-competitive inhibitors therefore simply reduce the amount of active enzyme.

Phillis Wheatley’s Fight against Slavery Essays - 1023 Words

Phillis Wheatley is a gem of her time; the first African-American woman to have her poetry published. Though purchased as a slave, her life was far from most African-Americans during the 17th century. She was educated and became deeply rooted in her faith: Christianity. From an outsider, her life may be viewed as an adopted child rather than a slave to the Wheatley family. However, she did not forget where she came from or those less fortunate than herself. Wheatley used the education she was afforded and her new-found spirituality to fight against slavery through the use of words (751). One of the greatest examples of this is her poem â€Å"To the University of Cambridge, in New England† addressed to perhaps the well-educated group of†¦show more content†¦This knowledge is that the Savior died for their sins and awaits their arrival in heaven to â€Å"share with Him in the sublimest skies† (19). She continues to warn the students of the repercussions of sin; à ¢â‚¬Å"transient sweetness turns to endless pain† (29). The phrase â€Å"transient sweetness† may refer to the short duration of wealth and prosperity on Earth in contrast to the â€Å"endless pain† one might experience in hell for their ill actions. She urges the students to shun â€Å"baneful evil to the soul† which she most-likely associates with slavery. Slavery is not only immoral behavior; it literally causes pain and destruction to individuals. She uses the phrase â€Å"human race divine† as well as the words pupil and privileged to describe the students’ superiority in society (27). This is important, why does she choose to enlighten the most intelligent group of individuals, many of whom may practice slavery? Perhaps, she chose this particular audience to convey her message because they would have the greatest ability; intelligence, to see the error of slavery and have the status to put an end to it. 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